A REFLECTION ON PHYSICS
Why write about physics? While physicists themselves might not dominate social media, their admirers certainly do, and their publications intrigue me. Yet, when I recall my high school physics knowledge, I realize this is likely a hopeless endeavor for me. I have always been a practical, pragmatic person, more focused on real-world applications than theoretical musings.
Physics, as a field, explores the relationships between space, time, matter, and energy. It spans an astonishingly wide range, from the microscopic to the cosmic. Mechanics, for example, deals with motion, force, and equilibrium, relying on both observation and experimentation. One intriguing aspect of physics, according to physicists, is the concept of “counterfactuals.” Counterfactual thinking is defined as “thought experiments based on imagining how an unrealized event or situation could have unfolded.” It poses questions like: How would the current state change under different physical conditions? Would such changes even be possible? Interestingly, this mode of thinking seems to extend beyond other fields. For instance, if a patient’s treatment had started earlier, would they have lived longer? Or if the central bank hadn’t raised interest rates, would inflation have surged?
What prompted me to delve into this? Chiara Marletto’s fascinating book, The Science of Can and Can’t: The Physicist’s Journey Through the Land of Counterfactuals (*), explores how incorporating counterfactuals into physics could help us better understand the universe, surpassing traditional physical understanding.
Chiara Marletto’s perspective and ideas, as a theoretical physicist, have the potential to unlock groundbreaking discoveries for humanity. Her approach reexamines fundamental physics concepts, such as information and the laws of thermodynamics, from a counterfactual standpoint. This perspective has made significant waves in the scientific community, opening a new window into physical reality. To fully grasp these ideas within modern physics, however, we should also consider another trailblazer, American astrophysicist Michio Kaku. Like Marletto, Kaku pushes the boundaries of our understanding in the quest to unravel the universe’s mysteries.
I believe these emerging frameworks have the potential to reshape how we all perceive and understand the world.
(*) https://www.amazon.com.tr/Science-Can-Cant-Physicists-Counterfactuals/dp/0525521941
When we analyze the past and carefully observe the present, it’s evident that the last decade has brought extraordinary advancements in the field of physics.
Shall we try to explore Michio Kaku’s superstring theory and its concept of a multidimensional universe alongside Marletto’s counterfactual world?
The British physicist David Deutsch described Marletto’s book as rational, transformative, and profoundly humanistic in its approach to understanding the counterfactual world. But to grasp the significance of her ideas, I first explored the concept of counterfactuals.
The term “counterfactual” explains which physical phenomena are possible and which are not. While it has often been overlooked, counterfactual thinking presents the realities of what can and cannot be done in physics. In other words, the possible and the impossible. It is upon these realities that the fundamental purpose of the laws of physics is constructed—laying out rules that apply to every system in the universe. Let’s consider an example provided by the author to better understand this concept:
Chiara Marletto imagines a scenario where, in a future space mission to another solar system, a stainless-steel box containing William Blake’s poetry is left on a distant planet. The presence of this box on the planet is a fact of the physical presence of the poetry book there. However, the readability of the words within the book—regardless of whether anyone on that planet ever reads them—is a counterfactual property. The box might never be found, but the words’ readability remains a truth.
Here’s another example: Think of a computer that displays only zeros on its screen. The computer’s current state is a structural property. However, its potential to be reprogrammed is a counterfactual property. The computer might never be reprogrammed, yet we know it can be reprogrammed. This potential existence is a counterfactual reality.
To embrace the concept of counterfactuals, we must shift our traditional perspective. Traditional physics explains how events occur under specific conditions. For instance, Newton’s laws of motion have provided us with tremendous insight into this issue. However, under Marletto’s perspective, the information we currently possess may not fully explain why something is considered impossible. For example, while it may seem unlikely for the poetry book to be discovered by alien life forms or for the computer to be reprogrammed, the existence of such possibilities helps us grasp counterfactual thinking. Even if we cannot confirm whether these events will ever occur, this uncertainty should not constrain our research. Marletto is likely to open doors to groundbreaking innovations in the future, pushing beyond the traditional boundaries of science.
From the standpoint of physics, a counterfactual property would be the impossibility of a machine that continuously generates its energy. As we understand, any transformation without consuming an energy source is unfeasible in our universe. This impossibility is rooted in the fundamental principle known as the “conservation of energy.” Yet, as a counterfactual property, constructing a steam engine is entirely possible. A steam engine is a device that converts one form of energy into another without violating the principle of energy conservation, performing useful tasks such as moving a piston. Having endured through the ages, the steam engine is a phenomenon that aligns with the physical laws governing our universe. But before encountering the first working example, the possibility of building such a machine was merely a counterfactual.
Considering these two examples provided by the author, it is possible to categorize the fundamental counterfactual realities encountered in the physical world into two groups. The first category comprises situations where certain transformations are impossible, such as building a motion machine that continuously produces energy. The second category, in turn, consists of situations where certain transformations are possible, like the steam engine. Both categories are essential principles of the laws of physics, and recognizing them is key to understanding the boundaries of our endeavors. No matter how much effort we exert, as far as we know, transformations that the laws of physics deem impossible cannot be achieved within our universe. However, with creative and careful thinking, we can discover more efficient and effective ways to realize possible transformations, just as nuclear turbines have replaced the steam engine.
This perspective constitutes the core premise of the book: Progress can be achieved by focusing on possibilities, but this requires the courage to interpret these possibilities carefully and systematically.
In our universe, most things are transient: rocks erode; objects wear out, and all living beings, from bacteria to elephants, age and eventually die—that is, they have a lifespan. However, there are exceptions: The fundamental particles that constitute the universe, like electrons and quarks, remain constant. The permanence and transience of these particles are inherent in the laws of physics, which establish the limits of everything that has occurred and what can occur in the universe. According to these laws, the ability of a system in the universe to sustain its existence is a rare and remarkable trait. The author defines this trait as “resilience,” a concept encompassing not only resistance but also adaptability.
To better understand the concept of resilience, let us look at nature. Living organisms demonstrate far greater resilience than formations like rocks. The author takes bacteria as an example, emphasizing how they have survived for over three billion years with minimal change. Humans, on the other hand, live by altering their environment—a phenomenon we call civilization.
Today, humanity faces many challenges, and to address these, we must adopt a flexible perspective. No matter how complex problems may appear, solutions are possible; the laws of physics provide opportunities for advancement through counterfactuals. The most crucial element we need to seize these opportunities is information. Information takes tangible forms in our brains, books, documentaries, scientific papers, and platforms like the internet, offering continuity. Understanding how information is formed is essential.
Physics theories often struggle to fully explain the entirety of reality. For instance, Newton’s physics enables us to predict the apple’s fall with the knowledge of when and where it will drop from the tree, and at what speed. However, even if this information is “complete,” it does not mean it represents absolute truth. This is where the deeper dynamics of information come into play. We can never be entirely certain whether a formulated physical theory is entirely correct and valid. What we can assert is that, to date, no evidence has disproven it within our universe. This perspective forms the cornerstone of critical progress.
Another aspect of information is its ability to allow us to make specific predictions. Physical laws often make assertions about the entirety of the universe. The accuracy of these predictions depends on their foundations. Scientific predictions must produce testable explanations. In fact, testability is itself a counterfactual trait. From this perspective, the fact that a prediction may be proven wrong still means that the prediction was made. Yet, the fixed framework offered by traditional physics leaves insufficient room for improvement and refinement.
Chiara Marletto presents an impressive example to broaden the narrow perspective offered by traditional physics. Using a chessboard, she explains both the traditional understanding of physics and her approach: The author asks us to imagine a drawing situation in a chess game. For a chess game to end in a draw, certain conditions must be met. Simply put, when the arrangement of pieces on the board makes “checkmate” unachievable, the result is a scenario where neither player can win. At this point, two different explanations can be provided for why the game ended in a draw. The first explanation is based on the traditional laws of physics. According to this approach, by analyzing the positions of the pieces on the chessboard and the mental structures of the players, we can understand that no moves can lead to a checkmate. Based on the fundamental laws of movement and initial conditions, this outcome on the board is inevitable. To grasp this, we also need to analyze the players’ mental frameworks and how/what they think.
However, according to Marletto’s perspective, the true explanation for a draw in chess lies within the rules of the game. The fact that chess pieces can only move in certain ways is a direct result of the impossibility of other moves. Although this counterfactual explanation may seem straightforward at first glance, it is a much deeper and more specific approach. Moreover, this explanation does not require any knowledge of the rest of the universe or the mental states of the players. Only a small section of the chessboard and the counterfactual properties of the few pieces suffice for this explanation.
This new structure of explanation can also be used to make predictions. Some transformations are possible, while others are impossible. This is a fundamentally different approach compared to the explanations offered by traditional science. This method is independent of time, requiring us to consider not only what has occurred but also what could or could not occur. It is a profound structure infused with information. According to Chiara Marletto, for a physical system to transfer information, it must possess two fundamental counterfactual properties:
- It must be capable of transitioning into at least two different states, as permitted by the laws of physics.
- Each of these states must be replicable.
The author illustrates this with examples: The sound we produce while speaking can be recorded and transformed into stored information via a recording device; chess players’ moves can be documented in a notation book; or entire rooms filled with music CDs can be compressed into a small device that fits in our pocket. Information has a resilient nature; it can be transferred and replicated across different mediums without restrictions.
At this point, the author emphasizes the importance of understanding the role of information in physics. Whether a system transfers information depends on whether it exhibits these two transformational properties. If the laws of physics do not permit these transformations, the system cannot transfer information. This brings us closer to understanding Marletto’s perspective: the transfer of information is a counterfactual property because whether a system contains information is directly tied to the feasibility of these two transformations. This framework helps us grasp the intricate relationship between information and physics.
Within this context, it’s also crucial to examine computers, which have become an indispensable part of modern life. Computers, of course, are subject to the laws of physics. The calculations a computer can perform and the operations it can execute are entirely dictated by the laws of physics. At this point, to better understand Chiara Marletto’s approach, we need to focus our attention on quantum computers.
Quantum computers are devices capable of performing certain calculations far more efficiently than conventional computers. Quantum computing leverages the probabilistic nature of quantum mechanics to develop novel methods of computation. The fundamental building blocks of quantum computers are qubits. Unlike classical computer bits, which can only represent 0 or 1, qubits can exist in a superposition state, representing both 0 and 1 simultaneously. In simple terms, quantum computers perform calculations based on the probabilities of an object before it is measured. Quantum computers exhibit a counterfactual structure, advancing through probabilities and enhancing existing information to yield unconventional outcomes.
At this juncture, let us explore further the layers of the counterfactual world by transitioning to another topic that aligns with the fundamental principles of information as defined by the author but involves more complex dynamics.
Earlier in the article, I briefly mentioned the law of conservation of energy. Now, it would be apt to elaborate on what energy means. Energy is a term derived from the Greek, meaning “the capacity to perform work.” Energy, as an abstract property of physical systems, is subject to constraints imposed by physical laws. The most significant of these constraints is the law of conservation of energy: Any change in a system’s energy must correspond to an equivalent change in another system’s energy. The law of conservation of energy is directly tied to counterfactuals. In other words, without an external influence, a system’s energy cannot change.
Chiara Marletto invites us to consider a music box. The energy stored inside the box can be altered by a clock-like mechanism or a rotating cylinder. This same energy, independent of most physical details, can be stored in various systems and transferred from the spring inside the box to the cylinder, the comb, and the vibrating air molecules. This mirrors the interchangeable nature of information: mediums containing information possess identical counterfactual properties, allowing them to be interchangeable. However, this principle does not apply to systems that carry energy, as the capacity of energy to perform work decreases over time. To illustrate this, the author uses the example of a bicycle. When you apply the brakes with your hand, you physically create resistance against the rotation of the wheel. Once the bicycle stops, the brakes and the wheel become warm. After this thermal motion occurs, it becomes impossible to recover the energy. At its core, this phenomenon is also explained by a counterfactual property.
We’ve explored how counterfactuals apply across various fields. But how might this concept contribute to the scientific world? First, counterfactual thinking allows us to view abstract concepts as part of the physical world. For instance, knowledge and wisdom might traditionally be regarded as intangible ideas by those who lack this perspective. Yet, with a counterfactual perspective, we can argue that the fundamental dynamics of knowledge and wisdom are dictated by physical laws. This shift, making the abstract tangible, could unlock significant potential for progress in many areas.
Another critical contribution of counterfactual approaches lies in their ability to express traditionally “approximate” entities—such as information, energy, heat, and work—through precise laws. By understanding the counterfactual properties of these entities, we can define systems more accurately and articulate these laws with greater clarity in the future.
Counterfactuals have the power to ground seemingly abstract or ambiguous concepts in fundamental physical laws, rendering them more concrete. At the same time, they encourage us to question and even dismantle traditional scientific structures. While this theory will undoubtedly evolve and be refined over time, even in its current form, Chiara Marletto presents a significant perspective that opens entirely new horizons in the realms of science and physics.
Another Theoretical Physicist: Michio Kaku
Michio Kaku stands as one of the most prominent figures in theoretical physics, especially renowned for his work on string theory. Pursuing Einstein’s dream of a “Theory of Everything,” Kaku has made significant contributions to uncovering the fundamental building blocks of the universe. A graduate of Princeton University, he has earned acclaim not just for his scientific achievements but also for his ability to make complex physics accessible to the masses.
Kaku’s ultimate ambition is to discover a “Theory of Everything” that harmonizes all the physical forces in the universe. Rooted in string theory, his approach proposes that the universe’s smallest building blocks are not particles but vibrating strings and that these strings might exist in multiple dimensions. Through this bold vision, Kaku not only delves into the universe’s multidimensional structure but also examines how emerging technologies could shape humanity’s future. On the frontier where science meets science fiction, he argues that once-impossible ideas, like time travel or invisibility, might one day become reality.
Kaku’s widely read books explore not only theoretical physics but also the future of science and its potential impact on humanity. Here are some of Kaku’s most influential works:
- Hyperspace: In this book, Kaku explains the multidimensional structure of the universe and the principles of string theory clearly and engagingly. He takes readers on a journey into the depths of multiverse theory, exploring how the universe might exist in different dimensions. Widely praised in scientific circles, Hyperspace has become a cornerstone for popularizing string theory.
(https://www.amazon.co.uk/Hyperspace-Scientific-Parallel-Universes-Dimension/; https://www.odtuyayincilik.com.tr/hiperuzay) - Physics of the Future: In this work, Kaku examines the scientific and technological advancements anticipated for humanity in the next 100 years. This book, which explores the societal impact of artificial intelligence, genetic engineering, and space exploration, sheds light on future scientific revolutions and offers striking insights into how technology will transform human life.
(https://www.amazon.co.uk/Physics-Future-Inventions-Transform-Lives; https://www.odtuyayincilik.com.tr/gelecegin-fizigi)
- Parallel Worlds: Delving deeper into multiverse theory, Kaku argues that our universe might be just one among many parallel universes. He explores the interactions between these universes and examines the alignment of the Big Bang theory with this hypothesis, pushing the boundaries of physics to investigate possibilities beyond our known universe.
(https://www.amazon.co.uk/Parallel-Worlds-Science-Alternative-Universes/; https://www.odtuyayincilik.com.tr/paralel-dunyalar)
- Physics of the Impossible: In this work, Kaku contends that concepts like invisibility and teleportation, which we currently see as science fiction, could one day become scientific reality. By expanding the limits of scientific inquiry, the book challenges what we think of as impossible.
(https://www.amazon.co.uk/Physics-Impossible-Scientific-Exploration-Teleportation/; https://www.odtuyayincilik.com.tr/olanaksizin-fizigi)
- The God Equation: This book is Kaku’s exploration of the “God Theory,” an equation capable of unifying all physical forces and natural laws. Often referred to as the “Theory of Everything-TOE” in the scientific world, this theory seeks to merge the four fundamental forces in the universe—gravity, electromagnetic force, strong nuclear force, and weak nuclear force—under a single framework. String theory stands as the strongest candidate for what Kaku refers to as the “God Equation.” According to string theory, the most fundamental building blocks of the universe are not atoms or particles, but tiny, vibrating strings. The vibration modes of these strings give rise to different particles and forces. In short, the different vibrations of the strings create everything in the universe. What Kaku envisions with this equation is the discovery of a single, ultimate formula or theory that underpins the functioning of the universe. This theory would provide a mathematical framework capable of explaining the entire structure and laws of the universe by unifying both quantum mechanics (which explains micro-scale particles) and general relativity (which explains large-scale structures). It is envisioned as a formula capable of addressing the most profound questions of existence, shedding light on the origins of the universe and the reasons behind its adherence to specific laws.
In summary, Kaku’s quest for the “God Equation” represents the ultimate, all-encompassing physical theory that explains all phenomena in the universe. This equation is considered a fundamental and powerful formula that could unlock a deeper understanding of the laws governing nature.
(https://www.amazon.co.uk/God-Equation-Quest-Theory-Everything; https://www.odtuyayincilik.com.tr/tanri-denklemi).
The commonality between Kaku and Marletto lies in their mindset, which pushes the boundaries of science with a dedication to solving the mysteries of the universe. Both are scientists—modern-day explorers—seeking new ways to understand the secrets of the universe and transcend known physical laws. While Kaku’s string theory focuses on exploring the multidimensional structure of the universe, Marletto introduces a fresh perspective on physical reality by employing counterfactuals. Both firmly believe that new scientific discoveries can open new horizons for humanity.
Both thinkers are forward-looking visionaries focused on advancing the boundaries of science, yet they differ significantly in their fundamental approaches. Kaku’s work is more tangible, observable, and focused on the building blocks of the physical universe, while Marletto’s approach operates on a more abstract, philosophical level. Kaku attempts to explain the smallest components of the universe with string theory, whereas Marletto questions the role of information, energy, and possibilities in science. In short, while Kaku’s theories center on understanding the physical world, Marletto’s are more about exploring the limits of possibilities and impossibilities.
In a universe where possibilities are just as fundamental as physical reality, should science confine itself to explaining only what exists, or should it chase what is yet to come?
From Marletto and Kaku, I realize that what we know is only a small drop in the ocean. To turn the unknown into a question, to obsess over it, to investigate, requires an unrelenting curiosity—and more than that, “courage.”
So, what about you? Do you have the courage to explore?
Does Science Conflict with Religion?
Before answering this question, we must avoid turning it into a matter of civilization. Looking at history, the champion of empirical science, the West, derived many of its intellectual foundations from Muslims. Alongside the enlightenment brought by Islam, we inherited all the classical works of the era and built our civilization upon them. The Creator states in the Qur’an, “When He decrees a matter, He only says to it, ‘Be,’ and it is” (Yasin, 82) (*). To me, this means that the rules set by our Almighty Creator, who is capable of all things and above all, are what we call Sunnatullah. These are the abstract and concrete laws universally applicable across all existence, as set by God to create and sustain the natural order and regulate societal life (**). The Qur’anic concept of Sunnatullah must be well understood. For instance, in Islam, Allah grants to those who work for it; this principle is not tied to religion. A person’s good or bad deeds do not alter their worldly life simply because they are faithful. Contrary to what Christian capitalists believe, God does not enrich His beloved believers. There are also baseless beliefs common among people, such as the idea that evildoers or wrongdoers will face consequences in this world. That is simply not true. If it were, would there be a need to believe in judgment and the afterlife? This world operates according to abstract and concrete laws—like sociology, economics, and physics—and exceptions or miracles are not for ordinary people like us. Miracles were bestowed upon the prophets, and no new prophet shall grace our world. Science and religion are not in conflict. Empirical science, as it is meant to, consistently unveils new laws. Yet, with each discovery, we come to recognize that these are not novel concepts, but laws that have always existed—Sunnatullah.
(https://islamansiklopedisi.org.tr/sunnetullah).
Science and religion cannot genuinely conflict, as the pursuit of knowledge and the discovery of the unknown does not equate to creating something from nothing, whether in the realm of physics or human nature. What we seek already exists; we simply uncover it, and in doing so, we grow in faithfulness.
(*) https://kuran.diyanet.gov.tr/tefsir/Y%C3%A2s%C3%AEn-suresi/3787/82-ayet-tefsiri
(**) For the animation showcasing the 1.8 billion-year tectonic dance of the Earth, see: https://singularityhub.com/2024/10/08/witness-1-8-billion-years-of-earths-tectonic-dance-in-a-new-animation/
Note: This open-source article does not require copyright and can be quoted by citing the author.
